Elenco dei più grandi monoliti al mondo

Da Ufopedia.

(Differenze fra le revisioni)
 
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[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Het verslepen van de steen 'Darodaro' voor de gestorven Saoenigeho van Bawamataloea Nias TMnr 1000095b.jpg|thumb|300 px|People on [[Nias]] Island in [[Indonesia]] move [[monolith]]s to a construction site, circa 1915]]
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#RINVIA [[Lista dei più grandi monoliti al mondo]]
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This is a '''list of monoliths''' organized according to the size of the largest block of stone on the site. A [[monolith]] is a large stone which has been used to build a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. In this list at least one colossal stone over ten tons has been moved to create the structure or monument.
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In most cases the ancient civilizations had little, if any, advanced technology that would help the moving of these monoliths. The most notable exception is that of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] who had [[Roman crane|cranes]] and [[Treadwheel crane|treadwheel]]s to help lift colossal stones (see [[List of ancient monoliths]]).
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Documented in recent times, there is a list of efforts to move colossal stones that used technology that wasn't more advanced than the technology the ancient civilizations used.
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Most of these weights are based on estimates by published scholars; however, there have been numerous false estimates of many of these stones presented as facts. To help recognize exaggerations, an introductory description shows how to calculate the weight of colossal stones by calculating [[volume]] and [[density]].
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== Calculating the weight of monoliths ==
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In the cases of the smaller monoliths it may be possible to weigh them. However in most cases the monoliths were too large or they may have been part of an ancient structure so this method could not be used. The [[weight]] of a stone can be calculated by multiplying its [[volume]] and [[density]]. The density of most stones is between two and three tons per cubic meter. The average weight of [[granite]] is about 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter, [[limestone]] 2.3 metric tons per cubic meter, [[sandstone]] or [[marble]] 2.5 tons per cubic meter.<ref>{{Citation
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  | last = Kumagai
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  | first = Naoichi
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  | coauthors = Sadao Sasajima, Hidebumi Ito
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  | title = Long-term Creep of Rocks: Results with Large Specimens Obtained in about 20 Years and Those with Small Specimens in about 3 Years
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  | journal = Journal of the Society of Materials Science (Japan)
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  | volume = 27
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  | issue = 293
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  | pages = 157–161
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  | publisher = Japan Energy Society
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  | url = http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=ja&u=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002299397/&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=4&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DIto%2BHidebumi%26hl%3Den
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  | date = 15 February 1978
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  | accessdate = 2008-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://palm.sri.com/palm/tasks/6-8/Dminerals/directs.html |title=Density of Minerals Task with Student Directions|work=Performance Assessment Links in Math (PALM)|publisher=[[SRI International]]|accessdate=2013-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://strata.geol.sc.edu/terminology/densitylog.html |title=Glossary |publisher=Strata.geol.sc.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://meteorites.wustl.edu/id/density.htm |title=density & specific gravity of meteorites |publisher=Meteorites.wustl.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurostonemarble.com/tips.htm |title=Eurostone Marble Inc.com |publisher=Eurostonemarble.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>  Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter like volcanic [[tuff]] or [[basalt]] which weighs about 1.9 tons per cubic meter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.albarrie.com/techfabrics/continuousfiber.aspx |title=Basalt Continuous Fiber |publisher=Albarrie.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5461391 |title=Energy Citations Database (ECD) - - Document #5461391 |publisher=Osti.gov |date=1985-04-01 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref> Since the density of most of these stones fluctuates it is necessary to know the source for the stone and volume to obtain accurate measurements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onekama.k12.mi.us/m2001/mwarman/warman00/dens_calculating.htm |title=Calculating Density |publisher=Onekama.k12.mi.us |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onekama.k12.mi.us/onekama98-99/gr6/density.htm |title=Nuts & Bolts of Density |publisher=Onekama.k12.mi.us |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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=== Rock density ===
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[[File:Gobekli Tepe 2.jpg|thumb|120px|[[Monolith]] with [[bull]], [[fox]], and [[crane (bird)|crane]] in [[low relief]], [[Gobekli Tepe]] ]]
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The discussion above is accurate as far as it goes, which is only to the first significant figure. To go any further one needs to be relatively sophisticated about surveying the monolith (including realistic and explicit assessment of the shapes of inaccessible portions of the monolith), then about calculating the volume (and volumetric errors, which vary crudely as the cube of linear uncertainties). Finally and crucially the rock density needs to be measured with appropriate precision. Identifying the rock type is not going to be sufficient as this table (from<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/MODULES/GRAV/NOTES/densities.html |title=Density Variations of Earth Materials |publisher=Earthsci.unimelb.edu.au |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>) illustrates:
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{| class="wikitable"
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|+ Densities of common rocks<br>in g/cm<sup>3</sup> / tonne/m<sup>3</sup>
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! Material !! Density
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| [[Sediments]] || 1.7–2.3
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|-
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| [[Sandstone]] || 2.0–2.6
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|-
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| [[Shale]] || 2.0–2.7
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|-
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| [[Limestone]] || 2.5–2.8
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|-
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| [[Granite]] || 2.5–2.8
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|-
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| [[Metamorphic Rock]] || 2.6–3.0
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|-
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| [[Basalts]] || 2.7–3.1
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|}
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Simply identifying the monolith as being "sandstone" would allow a reasonable ± 15% uncertainty in the weight estimate.
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In practice, one would measure the density of the monolith itself, and preferably document any variation in density within the monolith as they are made of natural materials, which have not been engineered for homogeneous parameters. Non-destructive methods of density measurements are available (e.g. electron back-scatter); alternatively the site may contain already-separated fragments of the monolith which can be used for laboratory measurements or on-site techniques. At the crudest, a weighing device and a bucket can obtain two significant figures for a density value.
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== Quarried monoliths ==
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[[File:Assuan 07.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Unfinished obelisk]] of Assuan]]
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This list includes only quarried, but not moved monoliths.
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1px; border:1px solid #ccc;"
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|-  style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" "
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! Weight
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! Name/Site
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! Type
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! Location
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! Builder
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! Comment
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|-
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| {{Sort|124200|{{0|~}}1,242 t}}<ref>{{harvnb|Ruprechtsberger|1999|p=17}}</ref>
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| [[Stone of the South#Second monolith|Unnamed monolith]]
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| Block
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| [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]
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| [[Roman Empire]]
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| 19.5–20.5 m long, 4.34–56 m wide, 4.5 m high
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|-
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| {{Sort|110000|{{0|~}}1,100 t}}<ref>{{harvnb|Klemm|Klemm|1993|pp=323f.}}</ref>
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| [[Unfinished obelisk]]
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| [[Obelisk]]
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| [[Assuan]], [[Egypt]]
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| [[Ancient Egypt]]
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| 41.75 m long, 2.5–4.4 m wide
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|-
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| {{Sort|100000,12|{{0|~}}1,000.12 t}}<ref>{{harvnb|Ruprechtsberger|1999|p=15}}</ref>
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| [[Stone of the South]]
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| Block
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| [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]
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| [[Roman Empire]]
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| 20.31–76 m long, 4–5.29 m wide, 4.21–32 m high
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|-
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| {{Sort|020700|{{0|~1,}}207 t}}<ref>{{harvnb|Maxfield|2001|p=158}}</ref>
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| [[Granite]] column
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| Column
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| [[Mons Claudianus]], [[Egypt]]
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| [[Roman Empire]]
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| Ca. 17.7&nbsp;m (59 feet) long<!-- It is not entirely clear whether Scaife means international [[Foot (length)|foot]] or [[Ancient Roman units of measurement|Roman foot]] --><ref>{{harvnb|Scaife|1953|p=37}}</ref>
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|}
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== Moved monoliths ==
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[[File:The Bronze Horseman.jpg|thumb|170px|The 1,250 t heavy [[Bronze Horseman#Thunder Stone|Thunder Stone]] in Saint Petersburg. On top an equestrian statue of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]]]
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[[File:Trajans column from SSW.jpg|thumb|upright|The 53.3 t heavy [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] block (the rectangular platform fitted with a railing) of [[Trajan's Column]] was lifted by [[Roman crane]]s to a record height of about 34 m.]]
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[[File:The Western Stone by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Western Stone]] of the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem weighs 517 t.]]
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[[File:Menec alignment.JPG|right|thumb|[[Neolithic]] [[Carnac Stones]], France]]
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[[File:Daorson, Bosnia and Herzegovina.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cyclopean masonry|Cyclopean walls]] of [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] ancient city of [[Daorson]] near [[Stolac]] in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].]]
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This list includes only quarried and moved monoliths.
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1px; border:1px solid #ccc;"
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|-  style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" "
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! Weight
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! Name/Site
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! Type
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! Location
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! Builder
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! Comment
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|-
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| 1,250 t<ref name="Adam 1977, 42−45">{{harvnb|Adam|1977|p=42−45}}</ref>
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| [[Bronze Horseman#Thunder Stone|Thunder Stone]]
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| Boulder
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| [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]
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| [[Russian Empire]], 1770
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| Moved 6 km overland for shipment,<ref name="Adam 1977, 42−45">{{harvnb|Adam|1977|p=42−45}}</ref> and cut from 1,500 t to current size while on transport<ref name = "La Nature">{{cite web | title = Transport du piédestal de la statue de Pierre le Grand | url = http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.19/351/100/432/0/0 |work=La Nature magazine, second semester 1882. | accessdate = 22 April 2007}} {{fr icon}}</ref>
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| 1,000 t<ref name="ReferenceA">"The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris Scarre 1999</ref><ref name="nationalgeographic1">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/03/080331-egypt-statue.html |title=Giant Statue of Ancient Egypt Queen Found |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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| [[Ramesseum]]
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| Statue
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| [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], [[Egypt]]
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| [[Ancient Egypt]]
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| Transported {{convert|170|mi|km}} by ship from [[Aswan]]
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|-
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| 800 t each<ref name="Adam 1977, 52">{{harvnb|Adam|1977|p=52}}</ref>
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| [[Trilithon]] (3x)
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| Blocks
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| [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]
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| [[Roman Empire]]
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| Plus about 24 blocks 300 tons each<ref>Alouf, Michael M., 1944: History of Baalbek. American Press. p. 129</ref>
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|-
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| 700 t each
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| [[Colossi of Memnon]] (2x)
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| Statues
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| [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], [[Egypt]]
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| [[Ancient Egypt]]
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| Transported {{convert|420|mi|km}} from [[el-Gabal el-Ahmar]] (near modern-day Cairo) over land without using the Nile.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="nationalgeographic1"/><ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)</ref>
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| 550 to 600 t<ref>The History Channel cited the 16.5 depth 567 ton estimate in "Lost Worlds of King Herod"</ref><ref>Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs, 2002</ref>
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| [[Western Stone]], Jewish Holy Temple
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| Block
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| [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]]
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| [[Herod the Great|Herod]], King of the Jews during the Second Temple period
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| 520 tons, 170 tons and 160 tons
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| [[Great Stele]], [[King Ezana's Stele]], [[Obelisk of Axum]]
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| Stelae
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| [[Axum]], [[Ethiopia]]
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| The stelae were moved about {{convert|2.6|mi|km}}.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
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|-
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| 400-600 t
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| [[Gomateshwara]]
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| Statue
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| Hassan district of Karnataka state, India
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| 60 feet (18 m) tall over 30 feet (9 m) wide
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| 400 t<ref>Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" p.62</ref>
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| Temple in complex for [[Khafre's Pyramid]]
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| [[Giza]], [[Egypt]]
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| 300-500 t<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/search.php?query=&topic=&author=&sitetype=44&county=602&category=&type=stories |title=Text Browse by Country, County and Type of Site : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map: |publisher=Megalithic.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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| Masuda no iwafune
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| [[Asuka, Nara]], Japan
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| large stone structure approximately 11 meters in length, 8 meters in width, and 4.7 meters In height
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| 340 t<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lacma.org/sites/default/files/LevitatedMassFAQ.pdf |title=Levitated Mass FAQ |publisher= Los Angeles County Museum of Art |date= |accessdate=2012-03-13}}</ref>
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| [[Levitated Mass]]
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| [[Los Angeles]], California, United States
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| Large stone intended for a work of art, Moved 106 miles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://obsart.blogspot.fr/2012/02/340t-340g-heizer-perray-usa-fr-280212.html#levitatedmasses |title=Mass movers |publisher= Observatoire du Land Art |date= |accessdate=2012-11-19}}</ref>
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| 300 t<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
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| [[Broken Menhir of Er Grah]]
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| [[Brittany]], [[France]]
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| Moved {{convert|7.5|mi|km}}.
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| 285 t<ref>{{harnvb|Adam|1977|pp=50f.}}</ref>
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| [[Pompey's Pillar (column)|Pompey's Pillar]]
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| Column
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| [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]
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| [[Roman Empire]]
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| 230 t<ref>{{harvnb|Heidenreich|Johannes|1971|p=63}}</ref>
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| [[Mausoleum of Theodoric]]
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| Roof slab
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| [[Ravenna]], [[Italy]]
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| [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]]
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| 220 t<ref>Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 147-163</ref>
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| [[Menkaure's Pyramid]]
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| [[Giza]], [[Egypt]]
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| largest stones in mortuary temple
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| 200 t<ref>source: Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 175-6, 180-1, 275</ref>
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| [[Sahure]]'s pyramid
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| [[Saqqara]], [[Egypt]]
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| largest stones over king's chamber
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| 200 t<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/dolmen.html |title=Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites - World Heritage Site - Pictures, info and travel reports |publisher=World Heritage Site |date=2010-01-01 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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| [[Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites]]
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| Korea
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| largest stone
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! Name/Site
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! Type
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! Location
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! Builder
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! Comment
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*[[Cueva de Menga]], in [[Antequera]], Spain.  Dolmen made of [[megalith]]s, weighing up to 180 tons.Built in 2500 BC.
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*Colossal statue of [[Tlaloc]], in [[Coatlinchan]].  Made of basalt, weighing 168 tons.<ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series:Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor (1992) p.45-47</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://instructional1.calstatela.edu/bevans/Art446-03-Teotihuacan/WebPage-Info.00033.html |title=Non-Western - Rain God, Tlaloc |publisher=Instructional1.calstatela.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chapala.com/chapala/ojo2006/tlaloc.html |title=Mexico’S Lord Of The Waters |publisher=Chapala.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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*The Kerloas [[menhir]], Brittany, France.  Largest, 150 tons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sophie-g.net/photo/bret/brest/kerloas01.htm |title=Kerloas menhir - Menhir de Kerloas [Sophie’s maze&#93; |publisher=Sophie-g.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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*[[Dol-de-Bretagne]], France.  Menhir, almost 150 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
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*[[Pyramid of Khendjer]] at Saqqara, Egypt.  150-ton, one-piece quartzite burial chamber.<ref>Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 246-9</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/khendjerp.htm |title=Egypt: The Pyramid of Khendjer at South Saqqara |publisher=Touregypt.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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*[[Tiwanaku]], Bolivia. Several ashlars, 100 to 130 tons, were transported {{convert|6|mi|km}}.<ref>Browman, D. L., 1981, New light on Andean Tiwanaku. New Scientist. vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408-419.</ref><ref>Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, 1986 "Atlas of Ancient America" p. 190</ref>
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*[[Sacsayhuamán]], wall near [[Cusco, Peru]].  Largest stones over 125 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB">"Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris Scarre 1999</ref><ref>Readers Digest: "Mysteries of the Ancient Americas" The New World Before Columbus 1986 p. 220-1</ref>
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*[[Treasury of Atreus]] at Mycenae, Greece.  Largest lintel stone, 120 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
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*The Pyramid of Amenemhet III, at [[Hawara]], Egypt.  110-ton, one piece quartzite burial chamber.<ref>Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 237-240</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/amenemhet3hp.htm |title=Egypt: Amenemhet III's Pyramid at Hawara |publisher=Touregypt.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt"</ref>
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*[[Luxor]], Egypt.  Obelisk, 227 tons.  The largest colossal statue of Ramses, well over 100 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
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*[[Ollantaytambo]], Peru.  Perhaps 6 stones well over 100 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
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*[[Brownshill Dolmen]], weighing an estimated 100 metric tons.<ref>{{Citation | last=Weir, A| year=1980 |title=Early Ireland. A Field Guide | publisher=Blackstaff Press | location=Belfast | pages=p101}}</ref>
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*[[Baths of Caracalla]], Rome, Italy.  Granite columns close to 100 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
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*[[Hagia Sophia]] in Istanbul, Turkey.  Columns close to, if not more than, 100 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
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*Fortress of [[Mycenae]], Greece.  Largest stones close to 100 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
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*Pyramid of [[Nyuserre Ini]].  12 megalithic limestone beams 10 meters long weighing 90 tons each, forming the roof of burial chamber and antechamber.<ref>Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p. 148-9 ISBN 0-500-05084-8</ref>
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*[[Moai]] at [[Easter Island]].  Largest Moai 70 to 86 tons.  The tallest one, Paro, was moved {{convert|3.75|mi|km}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/easter/explore/paro.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Secrets of Easter Island &#124; Paro |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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*[[Great Pyramid of Giza]], Egypt.  Largest slabs on burial chamber, 80 tons.  The granite was transported {{convert|580|mi|km}} from Aswan by barge on the Nile river.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
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*[[Karnak]], Egypt.  Obelisk, 328 tons.  Largest architraves, 70 tons.  Sandstone transported from Gebel Silsila {{convert|100|mi|km}}.<ref>Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World" p24-7</ref><ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) p. 53-54</ref>
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*[[Trajan's Column]], Rome, Italy. [[Pedestal]] blocks: 77 t<ref name="Lancaster 1999, 430">{{harvnb|Lancaster|1999|p=430}}</ref>
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*[[Ishibutai Kofun]] in [[Asuka, Nara]], Japan.  Largest stone, 75 tons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asukanet.gr.jp/asukahome/ASUKA2/ASUKAKOFUN/isibutaiK.html |title=ASUKA/isibutai kofun |publisher=Asukanet.gr.jp |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
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*[[Quirigua]], Guatemala.  Largest stele, 65 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
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*[[Osireion]] Abydos, Egypt.  Columns and lintels, about 60 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
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*[[Pantheon, Rome]], Italy.  Granite columns, 39 feet (11.8 m) tall, five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight were transported from Egypt by barge.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Parker |first=Freda |url=http://static.monolithic.com/thedome/pantheon/index.html |title=The Pantheon - Rome - 126 AD &#124; Monolithic |publisher=Static.monolithic.com |date=2009-05-12 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
+
-
*[[Olmec]] heads, Mexico, gulf coast.  Largest [[Olmec colossal heads|Olmec head]], almost 50 tons.  Transported 37 to {{convert|62|mi|km}}.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+
-
*[[Ħaġar Qim]], one of the [[Megalithic Temples of Malta]].  Its largest stone weighs 57 tons and measures approximately {{convert|19|ft|m}} long by {{convert|9|ft|m}} tall by {{convert|2|ft|m}} thick.<ref>http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/malta/hq7.html</ref>  The Maltese temples are the oldest free standing structures on [[Earth]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/malta/ |title=The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Temples of Malta |publisher=Bradshawfoundation.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
+
-
*[[Ashoka Pillar]]s, weighing up to about 50 tons, were transported throughout India to territory ruled by [[Ashoka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |title=KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times |publisher=Cs.colostate.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
+
-
*[[Machu Picchu]], Peru.  Largest stones 20 to 50 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Göbekli Tepe]], Turkey.  Megaliths from 10 to a 50 ton pillar still in its quarry<ref>{{cite book|last=Taracha|first=Piotr|title=Religions of second millennium Anatolia|year=2009|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-3-447-05885-8|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xTE7o8aKI7IC&pg=PA12&dq=%22G%C3%B6bekli+Tepe%22+%2250+tons%22&hl=en&ei=vU1ZTr7xJIrF8QOh-MDEDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=12}}</ref> transported up to a 1/4 mile.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html |title=The World's First Temple |publisher=Archaeology.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
+
-
*[[Nevalı Çori]], Turkey.  Megalithic site.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Avebury stone circle]], England.  Largest stone over 40 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Stonehenge]], England.  Largest stones over 40 tons were moved {{convert|18|mi|km}}, smaller bluestones up to 5 tons were moved {{convert|130|mi|km}}.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+
-
*[[Trajan's column]] Rome, Italy.  Forty-ton drums.  The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons.<ref>Lynne Lancaster,“Building Trajan's Column,” American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul., 1999) p.426</ref>
+
-
*[[Rameses IV]] reopened the stone quarries of [[Wadi Hammamat]] and had stones dragged {{convert|60|mi|km}} across land to the Nile, then barged to Temples and his tomb in Thebes. Some of these weighed over 40 tons.<ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 133</ref>
+
-
*[[Dur-Sharrukin]], Iraq.  Largest colossal Bull, 40 tons.<ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings p118-119</ref>
+
-
*[[Nineveh]], Iraq.  Largest colossal Bulls, 30 tons each, were transported 30 miles (48&nbsp;km) from quarries at Balatai, then lifted 65 feet (20 m) once they arrived at the site.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+
-
*[[Nimrud]], Iraq.  Largest colossal Bull, 30 tons.<ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. (1995) p. 112-121</ref>
+
-
*[[Maeshowe]] Orkney Islands, Scotland.  Largest flagstone, 30 tons.<ref>Lost Worlds: The Pagans (of Britain) History Channel series with contributions from historian Prof. Ronald Hutton, Archeologists Erika Guttmann and Martin Carruthers</ref>
+
-
*[[Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens)]], Greece.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Caesarea Maritima]], Israel Harbor of Caesarea.  Largest stone 20 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+
-
*[[Persepolis]], Iran{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Teotihuacan]], Mexico.  22-ton water deity on top of the [[Pyramid of the Moon]].<ref>Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World" p. 150-3</ref>
+
-
*[[Aztec calendar stone]] at [[Tenochtitlan]], Mexico.  Weight, 24 tons.<ref>''Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor''. Virginia:Time Life, 1992.</ref>
+
-
*[[Hattusas]], Turkey.  Largest stones, 20 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[List of Egyptian pyramids]] - most, if not all, Egyptian pyramids have monoliths over 20 tons, including monolithic roof slabs, plugs and burial vaults, some of which weigh over 100 tons.
+
-
*[[Nemrud Dagi]], Turkey.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Palenque]], Mexico.  The largest stones weigh 12 to 15 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+
-
*[[Ha'amonga 'a Maui]], in the Kingdom of [[Tonga]].{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*The [[Parthenon]] in Athens, Greece.  Largest stones 10 tons.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+
-
*[[Nubian pyramids]].  Sarcophagus, weighing 15.5 tons, and heavier granite statues up to at least 18 feet tall.<ref>Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.196-7 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.</ref>
+
-
*[[Copán|Copan Ruinas]].{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Dolmens of Russia]].{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Carnac stones]].{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Stećak]] tombstone monuments of [[Bosnia  and Herzegovina]].stećci
+
-
*[[Daorson]] ancient [[Illyrian]] city near [[Stolac]] in Bosnia and Herzegovina, built around central acropolis and surrounded with ''[[cyclopean masonry|cyclopean walls]]'' made of large stone megaliths.stećci
+
-
*[[Khajuraho]], India.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Konark Sun Temple]] in India.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Vijayanagara]], India.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Angkor Wat]], [[Angkor Thom]] and other Angkor temples, Cambodia.  Five million tons of sandstone were transported {{convert|25|mi|km}} along the river just for Angkor Wat.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Southeast Asia: A Past Regained (1995)</ref>
+
-
*[[Didyma]], Turkey.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Stone spheres of Costa Rica]].  Largest sphere weighs 16 tons.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Plain of Jars]].  Over 400 monolithic jars weighing from 5 to 15 tons, ranging from the Khorat Plateau in Thailand in the south, through Laos and to the North Cachar Hills of [[Dima Hasao district]], Northerneastern India.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Newgrange]], Ireland.  Built in 3200 BC.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Callanish Stones]], Western Isles of Scotland.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[San Agustín, Huila]], Colombia.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[El Infiernito]], pre-Columbian [[Muisca]] site. Colombia.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Gallardet dolmen]] or Pouget dolmen in [[Languedoc]], France.  Consists of a 12 metre long alley within a large tumulus. The main chamber is sill covered by three large capstones, and entry is made through a superb "oven door" entrance stone.{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
*[[Puma Punku]] is part of a large temple complex or monument group that is part of the Tiwanaku Site near [[Tiwanaku]], [[Bolivia]].{{cn|date=September 2013}}
+
-
* Huge blocks, some weighing over 100 tons, at the Valley Temple.<ref>Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" p.63-9</ref>
+
-
 
+
-
== Lifted monoliths ==
+
-
[[File:Alexander Column erection.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Column]]'s erection on the [[Palace Square]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]] (1832)]]
+
-
[[File:Concorde Obelix (5).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Luxor Obelisk]]'s erection on the [[Place de la Concorde]], [[Paris]] (1836)]]
+
-
 
+
-
These lists include only quarried, moved and lifted monoliths.
+
-
 
+
-
=== Erected in upright position ===
+
-
Monoliths known or assumed to have been lifted by cranes into an upright position:
+
-
 
+
-
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1px; border:1px solid #ccc;"
+
-
|-  style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" "
+
-
! Weight
+
-
! Name/Site
+
-
! Type
+
-
! Location
+
-
! Builder
+
-
! Comment
+
-
|-
+
-
| {{Sort|0600|600 t}}<ref>http://kolonna.e812.ru/construction/installation.html</ref>
+
-
| [[Alexander Column]]
+
-
| Column
+
-
| [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]
+
-
| [[Russian Empire]]
+
-
| Lifted in upright position in 1832
+
-
|-
+
-
| {{Sort|0361|361 t}}<ref name="Lancaster 1999, 428">{{harvnb|Lancaster|1999|p=428}}</ref>
+
-
| [[List of obelisks in Rome|Vatican Obelisk]]
+
-
| [[Obelisk]]
+
-
| [[Rome]], [[Italy]]
+
-
| [[Pope Sixtus V]]
+
-
| Relocated and lifted in upright position by [[Domenico Fontana]] in 1586
+
-
|-
+
-
| {{Sort|0250|250 t}}
+
-
| [[Luxor Obelisk]]
+
-
| [[Obelisk]]
+
-
| [[Paris]], [[France]]
+
-
| [[Louis-Philippe I]]
+
-
| Relocated and lifted in upright position by [[Apollinaire Lebas]] in 1836
+
-
|}
+
-
 
+
-
=== Lifted clear off the ground ===
+
-
Monoliths known or assumed to have been lifted clear off the ground by [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] into their position:
+
-
 
+
-
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1px; border:1px solid #ccc;"
+
-
|-  style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" "
+
-
! Weight
+
-
! Height
+
-
! Name/Site
+
-
! Type
+
-
! Location
+
-
! Builder
+
-
! Comment
+
-
|-
+
-
| {{Sort|1000|108 t}}<ref name="Coulton 1974, 19">{{harvnb|Coulton|1974|p=19}}</ref>
+
-
| {{0|~}}19 m
+
-
| [[Jupiter temple]]
+
-
| [[Cornice]] block
+
-
| [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]
+
-
| [[Roman Empire]]
+
-
|
+
-
|-
+
-
| {{0|1}}{{Sort|0600|63 t}}<ref name="Coulton 1974, 19"/>
+
-
| {{0|~}}19 m
+
-
| Jupiter temple
+
-
| [[Architrave]]-[[frieze]] block
+
-
| [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]
+
-
| [[Roman Empire]]
+
-
|
+
-
|-
+
-
| {{0|1}}{{Sort|5330|53.3 t}}<ref name="Lancaster 1999, 419, 426">{{harvnb|Lancaster|1999|pp=419, 426}}</ref>
+
-
| ~34 m
+
-
| [[Trajan's Column]]
+
-
| [[Capital (architecture)|Capital]] block
+
-
| [[Rome]], [[Italy]]
+
-
| [[Roman Empire]]
+
-
| Dedicated in 113 AD
+
-
|}
+
-
 
+
-
== List of efforts to move and install stones ==
+
-
 
+
-
These are listed with the largest experiments first; for additional details of most experiments see related pages.
+
-
 
+
-
*Marinos Carburis, lieutenant-colonel in the Russian Army, organized the move of an enormous boulder called the Thunder Stone (Russian, Камень-Гром) from the Gulf of Finland in 1768 to [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]] for the purpose of using it as a pedestal for the [[Bronze Horseman#Moving the Thunder Stone|Bronze Horseman]] statue. Based on the density of granite, the mass of the Thunder Stone has been estimated to be around 1500 tonnes. This was done by rolling it on bronze ball bearings on a track. It took an estimated 400 men nine months to move it.<ref>[http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.19/351/100/432/0/0 "(French) Transport du piédestal de la statue de Pierre le Grand] ''La Nature'' magazine, second semester 1882. http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.19/351/100/432/0/0. Retrieved April 22, 2007.</ref>
+
-
*In 1997, Julian Richards teamed up with Mark Witby and Roger Hopkins to conduct several experiments to replicate the construction at [[Theories about Stonehenge#Construction techniques and design|Stonehenge]] for NOVA's ''Secrets of Lost Empires'' mini-series. They initially failed to tow a 40-ton monolith with 130 men but after adding additional men towing as well as some men using levers to prod the megalith forward, they succeeded in inching it forward a small distance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2403stone.html |title=NOVA &#124; Transcripts &#124; Secrets of Lost Empires &#124; Stonehenge |publisher=PBS |date=1997-02-11 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>
+
-
*Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner teamed up with a NOVA crew to conduct an [[Obelisk#Obelisk-erecting experiments|obelisk erecting experiment]]; they successfully erected a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. They also managed to tow it a short distance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/egypt/dispatches/990827.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Mysteries of the Nile &#124; August 27, 1999: The Third Attempt |publisher=Pbs.org |date=1999-08-27 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/egypt/dispatches/990314.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Mysteries of the Nile &#124; March 14, 1999: Pulling Together |publisher=Pbs.org |date=1999-03-14 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 56-57</ref>
+
-
*[[Thor Heyerdahl]] organized an effort to pull a 10-ton [[Moai]] on a sledge with a group of 180 men. Approximately 18 men pulled each ton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/easter/move/past.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Secrets of Easter Island &#124; Past Attempts |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>Heyerdahl, Thor ''Aku-Aku; The 1958 Expedition to Easter Island''.</ref><ref>Heyerdahl, Thor. ''Easter Island - A Mystery Solved''. 1988. ISBN 951-30-8952-5</ref>
+
-
*Charles Love experimented with a 10-ton replica of a Moai on [[Easter Island]]. His first experiment found rocking the statue to walk it was too unstable over more than a few hundred yards. He then found that by placing the statue upright on two sled runners atop log rollers, 25 men were able to move the statue {{convert|150|ft|m}} in two minutes. Approximately 2.5 men pulled each ton.<ref>John Flenley and Paul G. Bahn (2003). ''The Enigmas of Easter Island: Island on the Edge'', p 150. ISBN 0-19-280340-9</ref>
+
-
*[[Austen Henry Layard]] organized an effort to transport two 10-ton colossal statues of a winged lion and a winged bull with a group of 300 men in 1847. He loaded them on a wheeled cart and towed them from [[Nimrud]] to the river and loaded on a barge, where it was sent to London. Approximately 30 men pulled each ton.<ref name="Mesopotamia 1995 p. 112-121">Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings.(1995) p. 112–121</ref>
+
-
*[[Paul Emile Botta]] and Victor Place attempted to move two additional 30-ton colossi to Paris from [[Khorsabad]] in 1853. In order to facilitate their shipment to Paris, they were sawed in pieces and they still ran into problems. One of them fell into the [[Tigris]] river, never to be retrieved. The other made it to Paris.<ref name="Mesopotamia 1995 p. 112-121"/>
+
-
*[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] organized an effort to pull a 7.5-ton fragment of a statue of Ramses on rollers with a group of 130 men in 1815. This statue was towed to the river and loaded on a barge, where it was sent to London. Progress increased with practice as they went along. Approximately 17 or 18 men pulled each ton.<ref>Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) p. 47–48</ref>
+
-
*Henri Chevrier organized an effort to pull a 6-ton block on a sledge with a group of six men. Approximately one man pulled each ton.<ref>Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: ''The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947'' p. 273–74</ref> Other reports claim that Chevier's experiment required three men to pull each ton.<ref>Lehner, Mark ''The Complete Pyramids'', London: Thames and Hudson (1997) p. 224 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.</ref>
+
-
*[[Josh Bernstein]] and [[Julian Richards]] organized an effort to pull a 2-ton stone on wooden tracks with a group of about 16 men. Approximately 8 men pulled each ton.<ref>Josh Bernstein: Digging for the Truth p. 133–35 book based on History Channel series</ref>
+
-
*[[Mark Lehner]] and NOVA organized an experiment to tow stones and to build a pyramid 9 meters wide by 9 meters deep by 6 meters high. They were able to tow a 2-ton block on a sledge across wood tracks with 12 to 20 men. Approximately 6 to 10 men pulled each ton. The pyramid was 54 cubic meters total estimated weight 135 tons. It was built out of 186 stones. The average weight of each stone was almost {{convert|1500|lb|abbr=on}} (.75 tons). They found that four or five men could use levers to flip stones less than a ton and roll them to transport them. 44 men took 22 days to complete the pyramid, including the carving of the stones. They used iron to carve the stones that wasn't available to the ancient Egyptians. Egyptians had to use copper. They also used a modern front end loader to accelerate the work on the lower courses. They were unable to use the front end loader to install the capstone, since it was too high and had to use levers to raise it to {{convert|20|ft|m}}.<ref>Lehner, Mark ''The Complete Pyramids'', London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.202-225 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.</ref>
+
-
*In a 2001 exercise in experimental archaeology, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to [[Stonehenge]]. Volunteers pulled it for some miles (with great difficulty) on a wooden sledge over land, using modern roads and low-friction netting to assist sliding, but once transferred to a replica prehistoric boat, the stone sank in [[Milford Haven]], before it even reached the rough seas of the [[Bristol Channel]].<ref>[[Theories about Stonehenge]]</ref>
+
-
*Roger Hopkins and Vince Lee both theorized about how the megalithic stones were moved at [[Baalbek#Theories about the Trilithon and other megaliths|Baalbek; these theories involved either towing them or flipping them.]]<ref name="ReferenceC">History Channel "Mega Movers: Ancient Mystery Moves"</ref>
+
-
*Vince Lee participated in experiments to test his theories about [[Sacsayhuamán#Theories about construction of walls|how the walls of Sacsayhuamán were built.]]<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
+
-
 
+
-
== See also ==
+
-
* [[List of colossal sculpture in situ]]
+
-
* [[List of megaliths]]
+
-
* [[Rock-cut architecture]]
+
-
 
+
-
== References ==
+
-
{{Reflist|2}}
+
-
 
+
-
== Sources ==
+
-
*{{Citation
+
-
| last = Adam
+
-
| first = Jean-Pierre
+
-
| title = À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes
+
-
| journal = Syria
+
-
| volume = 54
+
-
| issue = 1/2
+
-
| year = 1977
+
-
| pages = 31–63
+
-
| doi=10.3406/syria.1977.6623
+
-
}}
+
-
*{{Citation
+
-
| last = Coulton 
+
-
| first = J. J.
+
-
| title = Lifting in Early Greek Architecture
+
-
| journal = [[The Journal of Hellenic Studies]]
+
-
| volume = 94
+
-
| year = 1974
+
-
| pages = 1–19
+
-
| doi=10.2307/630416
+
-
}}
+
-
*{{Citation
+
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| last1 = Heidenreich
+
-
| first1 = Robert
+
-
| last2 = Johannes
+
-
| first2 = Heinz
+
-
| title = Das Grabmal Theoderichs zu Ravenna
+
-
| place = Wiesbaden
+
-
| publisher = Franz Steiner
+
-
| year = 1971
+
-
}}
+
-
*{{Citation
+
-
| last1 = Klemm
+
-
| first1 = Rosemarie
+
-
| last2 = Klemm
+
-
| first2 = Dietrich D.
+
-
| title = Steine und Steinbrüche im Alten Ägypten
+
-
| publisher = Springer
+
-
| place = Berlin
+
-
| year = 1993
+
-
| isbn = 3-540-54685-5
+
-
}}
+
-
*{{Citation
+
-
| last = Lancaster
+
-
| first = Lynne
+
-
| title = Building Trajan's Column
+
-
| journal = [[American Journal of Archaeology]]
+
-
| volume = 103
+
-
| issue = 3
+
-
| year = 1999
+
-
| pages = 419–439
+
-
| doi=10.2307/506969
+
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+
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*{{Citation
+
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| last = Maxfield
+
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| first = Valerie A.
+
-
| editor1-last = Mattingly
+
-
| editor1-first = David J.
+
-
| editor2-last = Salmon
+
-
| editor2-first = John
+
-
| contribution = Stone Quarrying in the Eastern Desert with Particular Reference to Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites
+
-
| title = Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World
+
-
| series = Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society
+
-
| volume = 9
+
-
| year = 2001
+
-
| publisher = Routledge
+
-
| location = London
+
-
| isbn = 0-415-21253-7
+
-
| pages = 143–170
+
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}}
+
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*{{Citation
+
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| last = Ruprechtsberger
+
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| first = Erwin M.
+
-
| title = Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon)
+
-
| journal = Linzer Archäologische Forschungen
+
-
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+
-
| pages = 7–56
+
-
| year = 1999
+
-
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+
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*{{Citation
+
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+
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| first = C. H. O.
+
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| title = The Origin of Some Pantheon Columns
+
-
| journal = The Journal of Roman Studies
+
-
| volume = 43
+
-
| page = 37
+
-
| year = 1953
+
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| doi=10.2307/297777
+
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}}
+
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[[categoria:Paleoastronautica]]
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[[categoria:Scienze]]
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Versione attuale delle 13:28, 25 ott 2014

  1. RINVIA Lista dei più grandi monoliti al mondo
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